Terrorism Cannot Be Justified Essays

Terrorism as an act of the same nation or against another nation by a political minority can be regarded as an act of Total conflict which by definitions includes the whole populace of both of the opposing armed forces as participants in the war. Terrorism cannot be justified for the reason that it involves kidnapping, murder, false detention or some other criminal acts which denies liberty or life. The taking of guiltless life for ones own progression of a cause cannot be allowed to go as justifiable. Terrorism cannot be justified, because it is nearly at all times the case that violent acts of intimidation are carried out by people who do not stand for the majority of society. A terrorist is a person who cannot accomplish his or her objectives through the usual and acknowledged channels of democracy and government, as these principally cater for the requirements of the greater fraction of a society more willingly than those of a displeased minority. As a result, faced with his or her failure to accomplish their individual objectives, and inability to acknowledge the decisions made by the larger proportion of the population, for the advantage of the majority, the terrorist merely alternates to mindless hostility against the majority, in a fruitless attempt to alter the decisions made by the majority. Terrorism has been used as a deceitful tactic by various associations to accomplish their objectives, whether they are social, political, environmental or economical. Nevertheless, as ethical, decent, and normal human beings, we ought to say no to terrorism, because it is never a tolerable way to bring about change. There are some main explanations for why this is true. Primarily, terrorism is in no way the only option, and methods like international relations can be just as successful. Terrorism can have the unnecessary side effect of isolating societies to otherwise good thoughts. Terrorism can in actual fact result to retribution in the form of more aggression, and terrorism cannot have a positive effect on society, due to the immense loss of life implicated. Therefore terrorism cannot be justified. Work cited Borjas, Gathvin Terrorism cannot be justified, Journal of Economic Literature, 32.1 (1994):1667–1717. Print Delaunay, D. and Tapinos, G., Terrorism. Vol.1: Rapport de synthà ¨se, Eurostat Working Paper, March 1998.Print Hanson, Granton, and Spilimbergo, Alienat. Why Terrorism should not be justified: Evidence from Apprehension at the U.S.-Mexico Border, NBER Working Paper No. 5592, May 1996.print Laham, Nicholas. Terrorism cannot be justified. U.S: Praeger Publishers. 2000. Print.

Truman s Greatest Moral Dilemma - 1126 Words

Rachel Green HIST-1302 Spring 2015 Truman’s Greatest Moral Dilemma President Harry S. Truman had a major ethical and moral dilemma in choosing whether or not to use the atomic bomb as a resolution to the war. This came with many advantages and disadvantages. We must consider several facts. President Truman was almost thrown upon the presidential role upon Roosevelt’s death. He was a reliable party man who was well liked by professional politicians. His inexperience and desire to please the American people while keeping our country safe must be considered. Utilitarianism can be defined as a commitment to the search for the common good. In which the use of the atomic bomb would be bring. Of course the obvious disadvantages to using the atomic bomb would be there many deaths and possible retaliation from Japan. We will examine all of these in the following paper. To begin the evaluation of the advantages of the use of the atomic bomb we must examine the time line that lead to the war. On December 7, 1941 the Japanese implemented a sneak attack on Pearl Harbor in which the United States declares war. In May 1942 the Japanese win the Battle of the Coral Sea while the invasion of Australia foiled. Then in June the United States wins the Battle of Midway and the Japanese advance towards Hawaii was turned back. In February of 1943 the United States takes Guadalcanal which is located along the southernmost periphery of the Japanese power. In the next two years the United StatesShow MoreRelatedThe Cold War : The United States Responsibility1919 Words   |  8 Pagestotalitarianism. However in reality, their primary objective was a well-disguised attempt at becoming the sole dominant force. Due to the United States’ imposition of ideology, intimidation towards the Soviets, and pursuit of economic interest, they bear the greatest responsibility for causing the Cold War. 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They were part journalist, police officer, and part neighborhood watch captain. These community volunteers would patrol the streets at night. Keeping an eye on what s happening and spreading the news. Saying things like Nine o clock and all is well, the town crier would warn people of external threats, too. Men in that era would often resort to dueling to settle disputes. Attempts to move personal conflictsRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 P agesand permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458, or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290. Many of the designations by manufacturersRead MoreUGT in the 21st Century14999 Words   |  60 Pagesof one’s role. (Katz, Blumler, Gurevitch, 1974, p. 20) This latter focus of research, conducted in a social-psychological mode, and audience based, crystallized into the UG approach (McQuail, 1994). Some mass communication scholars cited â€Å"moral panic† and the Payne Fund Studies as the progenitor of UG theory. Undertaken by the U.S. Motion Picture Research Council, the Payne Fund Studies were carried out in the late 1920s. Leading sociologists and psychologists including Herbert BlumerRead MoreOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 Pagesinformal structures, and in this respect you will find this book timely, interesting and valuable. 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Critical Thinking and Some Thoughts Scenario Cadet Colleges in Bangladesh Free Essays

â€Å"What is the relation between critical thinking in education and good governance†? The participants of the workshop, just like I, seemed to be a bit puzzled and confused hearing the question from the facilitator, Dr. Alan Klien. I was attending a workshop on Critical Thinking last year in BRAC CDM at Savar. We will write a custom essay sample on Critical Thinking and Some Thoughts: Scenario Cadet Colleges in Bangladesh or any similar topic only for you Order Now Around 35/40 secondary school teachers from different parts of Bangladesh were attending the workshop. It was quite a lively one and at the same time very interesting. The question of Dr. Klien did put us in a kind of perplexity for some time being. But at the end of the workshop, everybody could understand how important critical thinking is in respect to fulfilling the demand of the day. At the same time there was a bitter realization in me that we are not at all helping our cadets in this regard. Critical Thinking What is critical thinking? There are a variety of answers to that question, but most experts agree that it includes the ability for a person to use his/her intelligence, knowledge and skills to question and carefully explore situations to arrive at thoughtful conclusions based on evidence and reason. A critical thinker is able to get past biases and view situations from different perspectives to ultimately improve his/her understanding of the world. Critical thinking is not necessarily â€Å"critical† and negative. In fact, it would be more appropriate to term it as evaluative thinking instead of good thinking. The result of evaluation can range from positive to negative, from acceptance to rejection or anything in-between. In essence, critical thinking is a disciplined manner of thought that a person uses to assess the validity of something: a statement, news story, argument, research, etc Peter Facione, a Dean at Santa Clara University, has commented nicely about critical thinking and the ideal critical thinker: â€Å"We understand critical thinking to be purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological or contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based. Since this includes almost all types of logical reasoning,] CT is essential as a tool of inquiry. As such, CT is a liberating force in education and a powerful resource in one’s personal and civic life. While not synonymous with good thinking, CT is a pervasive and self-rectifying human phenomenon. The ideal critical thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, trustful of reason, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in complex matters, diligent in seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and persistent in seeking results which are as precise as the subject and the circumstances of inquiry permit. Thus, educating good critical thinkers means working toward this ideal. It combines developing CT skills with nurturing those dispositions which consistently yield useful insights and which are the basis of a rational and democratic society. † Critical thinking is not a recent idea. In fact, it dates back to the days of Socrates, the great master. Around 2500 years ago, Socrates established the importance of asking deep questions that probe profoundly into thinking before we accept ideas as worthy of belief. He established the importance of seeking evidence, closely examining reasoning and assumptions, analyzing basic concepts, and tracing out implications not only of what is said but of what is done as well. His method of questioning is now known as â€Å"Socratic Questioning† and is the best known critical thinking teaching strategy. Socrates’ practice was followed by the critical thinking of Plato, Aristotle, and many other Greek scholars. In the Renaissance (15th and 16th Centuries), a good number of scholars in Europe began to think critically about religion, art, society, human nature, law, and freedom. Descartes’ Rules for the Direction of the Mind and Sir Thomas Moore’s Utopia, showed that every domain of the present world was subject to critique. In the Italian Renaissance, Machiavelli’s The Prince critically assessed the politics of the day, and laid the foundation for modern critical political thought. Thus critical thinking has always been given importance for intellectual development. Critical Thinking in education Critical thinking is considered important in the academic fields because it nables one to analyze, evaluate, explain, and restructure their thinking, thereby decreasing the risk of adopting, acting on, or thinking with, a false belief. John Dewey, one of the famous educational leaders, recognized that a curriculum aimed at building thinking skills would be a benefit not only to the individual learner, but to the community and to the entire democracy. Dewey emphasized the significance of critical thinking in learning. There are two meanings to t he learning. The first occurs when learners (for the first time) construct in their minds the basic ideas, principles, and theories that are inherent in content. The second occurs when learners effectively use those ideas, principles, and theories as they become relevant in learners’ lives. This is a process of application. Good teachers cultivate critical thinking (intellectually engaged thinking) at every stage of learning, including initial learning. The key is that the teacher who fosters critical thinking fosters reflectiveness in students by asking questions that stimulate thinking essential to the construction of knowledge. Critical thinking skills give students the ability to not only understand what they have read or been shown but also to build upon that knowledge without incremental guidance. It is not simply rote memorization or the ability to absorb lessons unquestioningly. When rote memorization takes precedence over problem solving, logic, and reason, students suffer. There was a time when educators believed that content knowledge was enough for students to succeed. For the most part the information that students learned in school was the same information that their parents learned. Today, however, all of that is changing. The increasing power of technology has created a world where information changes quickly, and new ideas can be distributed and adapted almost instantaneously. It has been seen in a survey that what a student learns in the first year of his graduation course, becomes outdated in the third year. That shows how important it is today that students learn critical thinking skills, so they can be both the inventors and the critics of the new information. Teaching students to think critically is incredibly rewarding for the teachers also because what he/she provides to students is the opportunity for them to understand and take charge of their learning and their lives. Helping students develop critical thinking skills will also have an impact on the classroom. Students will approach the material in a more thoughtful and effective manner, they will ask more and better questions and will participate in the learning process. Students will also develop the skills necessary to evaluate the resources that they consult for research purposes. The benefits to students are innumerable. Developing critical thinking can change a student’s life. Students will develop higher order thinking abilities necessary for academic and job success. But more importantly, students will expand the perspectives from which they view the world. Critical thinking skills will help them navigate the important decisions in learning and in life. The Critical Thinking Community says, â€Å"Critical thinking is the art of taking charge of your own mind. Its value is simple: if we can take charge of our own minds, we can take charge of our lives. How to integrate Critical thinking in the process of education Once we acknowledge that critical thinking is an important skill, the question comes can we teach it? The answer is, undoubtedly â€Å"yes†. Thinking can be taught and furthermore that it must be taught in a directed manner providing students with practice evaluating ideas. As teachers, we can very well influence whether a student w ill learn critical thinking skills in our classes. Teaching critical thinking is nothing but helping students discover the answers by themselves. Critical thinking can occur whenever one judges, decides, or solves a problem; in general, whenever one must figure out what to believe or what to do, and do so in a reasonable and reflective way. Reading, writing, speaking, and listening can all be done critically or uncritically. It is a way of taking up the problems of life. When anyone improves his/her critical thinking skills, it helps to increase problem solving-skills and deep-thinking elements. All of these skills relate to one part of the brain, and the more one use them the easier it will be to apply them. The list of core critical thinking skills includes observation, interpretation, analysis, inference, evaluation, explanation, and meta-cognition. Irrespective of the context or discipline â€Å"a well-cultivated critical thinker†: †¢raises important questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely †¢gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively †¢comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards †¢thinks open-mindedly within alternative ystems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences †¢communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems, without being unduly influenced by others’ thinking on the topic. Critical thinking is an important element of all professional fields and academic disciplines. The concepts and principles of critical thinking can be applied to any context or case but only by reflecting upon the nature of that application. Thus there may be critical thinking such as anthropological thinking, sociological thinking, historical thinking, political thinking, psychological thinking, philosophical thinking, mathematical thinking, chemical thinking, biological thinking, ecological thinking, legal thinking, ethical thinking, musical thinking, thinking like a painter, sculptor, engineer, business person, etc. In other words, though critical thinking principles are universal, their application to disciplines can be contextualized. A teacher of any subject who insists on accuracy and a rational control of all processes and methods, and who holds everything open to unlimited verification and revision, is cultivating that method as a habit in the pupils. The art of Socratic questioning is intimately connected with critical thinking because the art of questioning is important to excellence of thought. What the word â€Å"Socratic† adds to the art of questioning is systematic way, depth, and an abiding interest in assessing the truth or plausibility of things. Both critical thinking and Socratic questioning share a common end. Critical thinking provides the conceptual tools for understanding how the mind functions in its pursuit of meaning and truth; Socratic questioning employs those tools in framing questions essential to the pursuit of meaning and truth. The goal of critical thinking is to establish an additional level of thinking to our thinking, a powerful inner voice of reason, that monitors, assesses, and reconstitutes—in a more rational direction—our thinking, feeling, and action. Integrating Socratic questions in the following manner in the classroom help develop active, independent learners. 1) Getting students to clarify their thinking e. g. , ‘Why do you say that? ’, ‘Could you explain further? 2) Challenging students about assumptions e. g. , ‘Is this always the case? ’, ‘Why do you think that this assumption holds here? ’3) Evidence as a basis for argument e. g. , ‘Why do you say that? ’, ‘Is there reason to doubt this evidence? ’4) Alternative viewpoints and perspectives e. . , ‘What is the counter argument for? ’, ‘Can/did anyone see this another way? ’5) Implications and consequences e. g. , ‘But if what happened, what else would result? ’, ‘How does†¦.. affect†¦? ’ 6) Question the question e. g. , ‘Why do you think that I asked that question? ’, ‘Why was that question important? ’, ‘Which of your questions turned out to be the most useful? ’ A set of activities associated with improvement in higher order thinking skills can be emphasized during classroom teaching: analyzing the basic elements of an idea, experience, or theory, such as examining a particular case or situation †¢ working on papers or projects that required integrating ideas or information from various sources †¢ putting together ideas or concepts from different courses when completing assignments or during class discussion †¢ synthesizing and organizing ideas, information, or experiences into new, more complex interpretations and relationships †¢ making judgments about the value of information, arguments or methods, such as examining how others gathered and interpreted data, and assessing the soundness of their conclusions †¢ examining the strengths and weaknesses of one’s own views on a topic or issue Critical Thinking and the education system in Bangladesh Education should enable a human being to attain the greatest possible harmony, internal and external, spiritual and material, for the fullest possible development of human potentialities and capacities. It is generally felt that our educational system has not followed the desired aims as a result that it does not produce ideal citizens in the country. It has followed, rather a narrow aim of preparing individuals for livelihood. If we want our students to effectively deal with the tremendous challenges of the 21 century, we must begin teaching students to discipline their own thinking. Teachers must move beyond rote and merely active engagement, and work toward transforming how students reason through complex issues, to look beyond easy answers. We must teach students that the only way to learn a subject or discipline is to learn to think within the logic of it, to focus on its purposes, questions, information, to think within its concepts and assumptions. We need to make them understand how can we hope to thoughtfully address the economic issues, conflicts, world poverty, and many other pressing concerns that trouble our planet, if we don’t think seriously? We can’t. To effectively deal with these issues, we must cultivate the spirit of critical thinking throughout human societies. The quality of our life and all of the decisions we make depend on the quality of thought and undoubtedly it can improve the condition of the country, too. For students to learn content, intellectual engagement is crucial. All students must do their own thinking, their own construction of knowledge. Good teachers recognize this and therefore focus on the questions, readings, activities that stimulate the mind to take ownership of key concepts and principles underlying the subject. Teaching critical thinking, especially, in the perspective of our country, can be challenging. Here students have so far, got very little chance to do things by themselves. As a result they have grown a tendency to depend on the teacher and rarely give any time for thinking. They become used to rote memorization. Finally when the students go for higher education or later in job and start facing challenges, they feel helpless. Considering the prevailing examination system, it appears to be very difficult to make students practice on critical thinking, but not impossible at all. We have to grow a habit as well as interest in the students for critical thinking. Otherwise how do educators instill in students a desire to think? For logically if there is no desire to think, it becomes much more challenging to improve the critical thinking in students. Recently creative type question method has been introduced in the country. Trainings are taking place. What I have heard so far is that there is almost no directive in those training sessions to prepare the students for this new system. It seems to be ridiculous. When a new system is introduced, the students must be given clear ideas because they are the guinea pigs in any new system in Bangladesh. They must know how to write these new set of questions properly. But without making the students involved in the thinking process and only training teachers to set up creative type question paper is not enough. We have to prepare our students in such a manner so that they can utilize their thinking power in all levels. Again, already there have been lot many guide books on creative type questions that have been published and not only the students but also the teachers are taking help from them. So what is the result? Though it is creative system, the students are memorizing answers and following the same traditional method. In many developed countries, Critical Thinking is taught as a different course. As it is not possible in our country right now, we can slowly change our teaching style, or better to say, add some components of critical thinking in our teaching. The teachers can infuse some questions with the regular teaching that may help cadets to think critically. Once they become used to it, they will start evaluative thinking and can get deeper into context. Besides, this habit will help him to judge situations and take the right decision without depending on others or acting impulsively. Now the question is, how much important it is in the perspective of cadet colleges and how can it be implemented. In cadet colleges we say that we are creating leaders, that we are producing all rounder. But I think it is high time we need to think about what we actually are doing. It is true that many cadets are showing good performances after passing out from Cadet College. But what is the percentage? Is it satisfactory compared to the past? Challenges have increased in the 21 century. Are we really making our cadets competent enough to face challenges for the 21 century? It is important that we need to prepare our cadets to use logic and thus become good citizens. We need to make the cadets aware of the true aim of education, think independently and get prepared to face the challenges ahead. The true aim of education is not only to pass the exam, rather to make people capable of facing challenges, to cultivate creative intelligence required for adaptation to changes in the social environment i. e. ‘adaptability’. In many countries the teachers are talking about encouraging students for critical thinking. But in our country we are still dependent on lecture method. There is almost no participation of students. I personally believe that there is a strong relation between critical thinking and student centered teaching. Unless you give your students the scope to talk, to xpress their mind and you remain active all the time keeping your students passive, you can never teach them how to think for themselves, let alone think critically. The students will totally depend on the rote memorization and suffer in the long run, blaming the tea chers or the education system later that they were not given any chance to cope up with or face challenging situations. It is true that our education system is also to be blamed for this. But in cadet colleges where we claim to be the makers of leaders, we must bring a change in our approach of teaching that can bring a different dimension and differentiate the cadet colleges from other institutions. If we don’t do this, cadet colleges will remain as simple as educational institutions with some extra and co curricular activities. How to cite Critical Thinking and Some Thoughts: Scenario Cadet Colleges in Bangladesh, Papers

Properties and Modern Application of Engineering Materials

Question: Describe about the Report for Properties and Modern Application of Engineering Materials. Answer: Introduction Engineering materials are imperative in everyday life owing to their versatile structural characteristics. Other than their characteristics, they do play a significant role due to their physical characteristics. The prime physical properties of the commonly utilized engineering materials include electrical, thermal, magnetic, and optical properties as discussed in the report. This is a report on the properties of materials and the influence they have on their use and application in modern engineering. The report includes mechanical, electrical, optical, thermal, and alloying properties and the pros and cons of each, giving examples in each case. Properties and modern application of engineering materials Mechanical properties of materials These are those proprties that determine the mechanical strength of a material and its ability to be molded in appropriate shape. Some of the common mechanical properties include strength, hardenability, ductility,creepand, slip resilience, brittleness, malleability, toughness, hardness, and fatigue (Kakani, Kakani, 2004). Strength It is the materials characteristic that its tendency to deform or undergo breakdown when an external force or load is applied. The material to be considered as for any engineering product should have an appropriate mechanical strength to be able to bear varying mechanical loads and forces. Toughness This is the capability of an enginerring material to absorb and withstand the applied energy and undergo plastic deformation without experiencsing any fracture. The numerical value of toughness is estimated by the value of energy in a unit volume measured in J/ m3. Also, the value of a meterials toughness can be estimated by stress-strain properties of the material. For any material to possess desirable toughnes,it should possess suitable ductility and strength. For instance, brittle materials that possess excellent strength but undesirable ductility do not have desirable toughness. On the other hand, materials that have excellent ductility but undesirable strength similarly do not possess desirable toughness. Thus, for a meterial to be tough, it should be able to withstand both elevated stress and strain (Wigley, 2012). Modern engineering applications Ceramics have gained versatile application in the field of engineering. Products made using technical ceramics are renown components in the construction and control of complicated plants, machinery, and equipment that require electro-technical component assemblies (Munz, Fett, 2013). Common examples are sensors in the automotive engineering industry or in the furnace/ kiln engineering. Others are the vacuum chambers of actuators in motion detectors. Pros Ceramics, owing to their brittleness, have either covalent or ionic bonds. One advantage is that such bonds are stronger than the metallic bonds. Cons The challenge though, is that ceramics possess significantly elevated chances of failure occurrence and are therefore, susceptible to cracking before attaining the desired yield stress. Electrical properties of materials The electrical purpose of a material influences the choice of an engineering material for its electrical characteristics. An engineering material is can either be used as an electrical conductor or insulator. The implication is that a given material can be classified as a superconductor or a semiconductor. The conductivity of an engineering material determines its ability to allow for the flow of electric charges (Tomkins, Wareing, 2013). The dielectric properties of materials One of the electrical properties of an engineering material is termed as its dielectric strength. A dielectric engineering material has the capacity of storing energy if an external electric field flows across it. There can be abrupt excitation of significant quantity of electrons to the energies found within the specified conduction bandwidth when enormously elevated electric field flows through a dielectric material (William, Smith Hashemi, 2011). As a result, there can be significant rise in the motion of the electrons that can lead to focalized vaporization, combustion and melting that overwhelmingly degrades the engineering material or makes it to fail (Soibam, Sanatombi, 2014). The occurrence called dielectric strength or sometimes known to as dielectric breakdown is experienced. Capacitance In a capacitor, a unit plate of a capacitor acquires positive charges in the event that a voltage V flows through it while another one acquires negative charges. The resultant electric field moves from the positive to the negative respectively. To facilitate the computation of the capacitance C, an expression that is commonly employed is C=Q/V where Q = the quantity of charged stored on either plates of the capacitor and V in the applied voltage flowing through the capacitor. Its units are in coulombs per volt (Farads), F. Modern engineering applications Electricity Transmission: cables such as copper and aluminum wire are widely used for power transmission. Storage of charge: capacitors are used in electronic appliances to store electric charges. Insulation: poor electrical conductors such as rubber and plastic are used as insulators, for example, as handles of appliances. Current regulation: materials with high resistance such as metal oxides are widely used to control the amount of current flowing in electrical appliances. Pros Malleability: electrical materials such as aluminum are highly malleable and can be forged into different shapes Ductility: electrical materials such as copper can be drawn into wires of different dimensions. Cons High costs: copper cables are quite expensive and therefore, require high initial cost of investment. Heavy: electrical materials such as copper are heavy and are therefore, difficult to transport from one point to another compared to optical materials such as optical fiber. Corrosion: electrical materials such as aluminum are susceptible to corrosion and therefore, require constant replacement. Optical properties of materials Optical property of an engineering material is associated with its interaction with electromagnetic radiation. Such radiation may have properties that fall within or outside the visible light spectrum (Tilleman, 2010). Signal transmission via a metallic cable conductor is electronic, while in fibers it is via photons. This aids in faster transmission at great densities to longer distances with decreased error rate. One of the greatest examples of optical engineering materials is optical fiber that forms the backbone of the communication systems today. The coaxial cable transmits the signals, whereas the cladding constricts the light beam to the coaxial cable. The outer outer coating guards the coaxial cable and cladding from the peripheral environment. Optical fiber employs the theorem of total internal reflectance. Characteristically, both the coaxial cable and cladding are manufactured using out of the ordinary types of glass with circumspectly regulated indices of refraction. Modern engineering applications Telecommunication: there are many uses of optical fibers in telecommunication such as universal networks to desktop computers for the broadcast of data, voice, or video over a given distance. For example, old telephone service (POTS) and Local exchange carriers (LECs) (Tilley, 2010). Data transmission: Multinational companies require secure, trustworthy mechanisms to convey data and financial data between premises to the desktop computers or terminals and to transmit data across the globe (Callister, Rethwisch, 2007). Transportation systems: fiber-optic-oriented telemetry mechanisms is employed in intelligent transportation mechanisms like smart highways coupled with intelligent traffic lights, automatic tollbooths, and convertible message signs. Biomedical industry: Fiber-optic schemes are applied in the majortiy of contemporary telemedicine dagdets for transmiting digital diagnostic images. The additional uses include space, military, motorvehicle, and the manufacturing sector. Pros Size and weight: the optical fibers are light in weight with small coaxial diameter. This helps during the rolling out process over long distances. Signal reliability: there is minimal electromagnetic interference in the case of optical signals thus; they can travel over comparatively longer distances. Bandwidth capacity: a lot of information can be carried out by the optical signals compared to the electrical ones. Cons Switching: there is poor traffic switching even though there is increased data transmission efficiency in the case of point-to-point transmission. Physical constraints: the coaxial cables cannot withstand extreme bending and are susceptible to losing some light transmission characteristics. Cost per user: the cost of deploying optical fibers to homes and points of consumption is comparatively higher. Thermal properties of materials Different engineering materials have different thermal properties since they react differently when exposed to different degrees of temperature. For example, aluminum oxide occurs due to high quantities of negative energy and this renders it a desirable refractory engineering material that possesses suitable chemical stability. Such a fact explains its occurrence in high temperate regions. The thermal conductivity of aluminum oxide (determined in W/mK) is its ability to conduct heat (Chawla, 2012). This characteristic of aluminum oxide explains the level at which transmission of thermal energy occurs through it. Due to its relatively elevated thermal conductivity, the oxide has a broad range of applications since it is a high temperature engineering material in the modern world of engineering. The thermal expansion coefficient of this oxide is relatively low and this enables it to be applied in many systems that involve high temperatures (Callister, Rethwisch, 2012). The engineering materials that possess microstructures and great thermal expansion coefficient are prone to temperature-induced failures of systems. This condition occurs as a result of the microstructures random orientation that makes it to expand and contract by differing quantities in many directions. Modern engineering applications Insulation: materials that possess bad thermal properties such as cork, rubber are widely used as handles of heating and electrical appliances such as electric kettles. Heating: materials with good thermal properties such as aluminum are widely used for heating, cooking, and other heat-related applications such the manufacture of soldering bits. Cons Materials with poor thermal conductivity lead to high power consumption when put under uses that require heating such as cooking. Pros Good thermal conductors have versatile range of applications such as the manufacture of electrical and heating appliances like iron boxes, cookers, and electric coils. Alloying properties of materials Small quantities of alloying elements are frequently added to metals to improve some specific properties of the metals. Alloying can improve or lower the strength, corrosion resistance, hardness, electrical and thermal conductivity, or alter the color of a given engineering metal. The introduction of an element to improve one characteristic may have unwanted effects on other characteristics. Strength Copper metal often undergoes a common procedure called solid solution strengthening. Little amounts of an alloying element introduced to molten copper will entirely dissolve and result to a single phase of homogeneous microstructure. Sometimes, additional quantities of the alloying substance will not dissolve. Therefore, the exact quantity relies on the solid solubility of the specific element in copper metal. When that particular solid solubility limit is surpassed, two distinct microstructures result, with varying compositions and hardness (Luque, Hegedus, 2011). A non-alloyed copper is comparatively in regard to common structural metals. A metal alloy with tin mixed with copper is calledbronze. The resultant alloy is stronger and harder compared to either of the two unalloyed metals. The same applies to zinc alloyed with copper to result to brass. Electrical and Thermal Conductivity The most effective method of improving the electrical and thermal conductivity of copper is to reduce the impurity levels. The presence of impurities and other common alloying components will lessen the electrical and thermal conductivity of copper, except for silver. As the quantity of the alloying element rises, the electrical conductivity of the alloy declines (Provatas, Elder, 2011). On the other hand, Cadmium has the nominal effect on resulting alloy's electrical conductivity. Others include zinc, tin, nickel, aluminum, silicon, manganese, and phosphorus. Color Unalloyed copper possesses a reddish-gold color that rapidly oxides to dull green. Given that copper has natural impurities or can undergo alloying with over one additive, it is difficult to establish the particular effect each alloying substance has on the color of the resulting alloy. For instance, electrolytic tough pitch copper has traces of silver, iron, and sulfur and possesses a soft pink color (Kalpakjian, Schmid, 2014). In addition, gilding copper has a reddish-brown color and has traces of zinc, iron, and lead. Modern engineering applications Oxidation: Silicon can be used in place of phosphorus to deoxidate copper when conductivity is of critical concern. Phosphorus is mostly used to deoxidize copper in order to improve its hardness and strength, but critically interferes with its conductivity (Rudin, Choi, 2012). Ornamental applications: Brass alloy is commonly employed for ornamental purposes owing to its similarity with gold in terms of appearance. Pros The figure below summarizes the application and importance of alloying metals with different metal traces. Cons Reduced properties: Unalloyed copper is a good conductor of electrical current and heat compared to the alloyed type. Even though various mechanisms are engraved in thermal conductivity, the introduction of rising amounts of elements or impurities also leads to a decline in thermal conductivity (Park, 2012). For instance, Zinc causes an insignificant effect on the thermal conductivity of copper. Conclusion In conclusion, engineering materials are vital in everyday life owing to their flexible structural characteristics. Other than their features, they do play a significant role in the manufacturing industry such as die-casting, forging, annealing, and ordinary casting due to their physical characteristics. The primary physical characteristics of the commonly utilized engineering materials include electrical, thermal, magnetic, and optical properties. 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